Speaking to Impurity: The Preservation or Expulsion of Parasites in Iwaaki Hitoshi’s Parasyte

**Fig. 1 - Shinichi and Migi on the manga cover.**

The Anthropomorphs of Impurity

Parasyte is a Japanese sci-fi/fantasy/horror manga created by Hitoshi Iwaaki, serialized from 1989 to 1994, and continuously adapted over the last decade into multiple films, animations, and television series. Its enduring popularity is evidenced by the recent Korean film adaptation, which emerged a decade after the last, Parasyte: The Grey. Most versions of Parasyte maintain the same core narrative, focusing on a high school student named Shinichi and an alien parasite named Migi that burrows into his right arm (Fig. 1). They gradually form a trusting alliance to combat other parasytes that have taken over human brains. Through his interactions with Migi, Shinichi begins to ponder the justice of survival among non-human creatures.

Parasyte delves into mediating the relationship between humans and non-human creatures. However, instead of exacerbating their conflict with traditional monster narratives, The human protagonist in manga seek to communicate with those intelligent parasites. Non-human creatures in fantasy are commonly used to explore, dilute, exaggerate, and satirize the complexities of the human condition once they are anthropomorphized (Holliday 2018). A prime example of satirizing societal notions and prejudices through anthropomorphism is found in Ratatouille (Brad Bird, 2007), where the anthropomorphized character, Remy, a brown rat, is depicted as an unseen chef possessing an indispensable talent that surpasses even that of humans. Traditionally, rats are seen as symbols of disease and filth in restaurants, yet presenting a rat as a chef creates a liminal identity, balancing on the edge of chaos (Power 2008). This type of character embodies a mix of conflicting attributes, challenging our typical perceptions, and inviting reflection on complex identities and coexistence.

In contrast, Parasyte features a parasite that has been given human characteristics, perceived as even more repulsively unclean due to its unique appearance and lifestyle. Parasites live inside host bodies, using the host’s resources for their own metabolism and reproduction, potentially invoking a stronger sense of revulsion and psychological disturbance in us compared to rats. My analysis explores how this anthropomorphism of impure others in Parasyte can resonate with contemporary biological debates. And you will discover the striking similarities in cross-species interactions between fantasy and reality, as well as the potential of fantasy and animation to promote cross-species inclusion through the anthropomorphism of impure others.

What/Who is the Impure?

The scene from the Parasyte manga (1989), in which Mayor Hirokawa confronts human soldiers at the city council, is vividly depicted across various adaptations, including the animated series directed by Shimizu Kenichi (2014), and the film directed by Yamazaki Takashi (2015). Both adaptations faithfully recreate this pivotal moment. Hirokawa, through his unusual emotional responses—attributes often associated with parasytes in the story—challenges the conventional views on what is parasitism. He asserts that humans’ right to exist is not greater than that of parasytes, juxtaposed with his seemingly inhuman demeanour, initially leading audiences to speculate that he might be a parasyte rather than a human. However, the discovery of his human corpse dispels this notion. He was a human who prioritized Earth's welfare over his species.

The various adaptations each uniquely captures Hirokawa's facial expressions, which are pivotal in adding intensity to his challenge. Figs. 2-4 depict his varying emotional expressions across different adaptations of the series: cold-hearted (left) in the original manga (1989) (Fig. 2), contemplation in the animated series Parasyte - The Maxim (2014) (Fig. 3), and wrath in the film Parasyte 2 (2015) (Fig. 4). These varied portrayals challenge our understanding of parasitism, prompting us to reconsider the complex relationship between humans and parasites. In the original manga, his cold demeanour critiques humanity's selfish survival instincts. The animated series introduces contempt, adding a layer of disdain towards these instincts. Meanwhile, the film’s portrayal of Hirokawa, marked by sudden outbursts of anger, intensifies the critique of selfishness, highlighting its destructive consequences. These nuanced expressions across different media enrich the narrative by offering diverse perspectives on survival and ecological justice, demonstrating the power of transmedia storytelling to evoke diverse interpretations and deepen the storyline (Jenkins 2010).

**Fig. 5 - Red-billed Oxpecker (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) on a giraffe. Photo: Bernard Dupont, Wikimedia Commons.**

In the franchise, Hirokawa brings to light the stigma attached to parasitism, often viewed negatively in both everyday language and scientific discourse. Parasites are typically seen as entities that leech off the nutrients of other species, undermining their health and fitness. This perspective aligns with the biological definition of parasitism as a form of symbiosis (Garay & Rózsa 2023). But if applied the definition, not only worms would be considered parasites; even birds would fall under this category. Take the Red-billed Oxpecker (Fig. 5), for example: often found on large mammals feeding on ticks, it is generally considered being mutualistic, a reciprocal relationship where the mammal receives benefits for ticks removal, and the oxpecker acquires their food. However, studies have found that the number of ticks is not affected by the birds, and they even slow the healing of wounds on cattle (Weeks 2000). According to the biological definition, a Red-billed Oxpecker could be viewed as a parasite. Yet, this discovery has not led to them being perceived as parasites in the field of taxonomy (Patricia Kaishian 2024). It seems that people often prematurely label parasites relying more on aesthetic judgments than scientific analysis. Additionally, biologists face the challenge of definitively determining whether a parasitic relationship benefits or harms the host. In fact, many animals benefit from improved immune responses through interactions with parasites (Garay & Rózsa 2023), indicating that parasitism is not universally detrimental. Yet, paradoxically, the very definition of parasitism as understood by humans implies harm to the host.

Debunking from the Impure

“If the prey happens to be human, does that make it evil?” – A question posed by the parasyte, Migi to Shinichi from Parasyte.

In the Parasyte franchise, parasytes are depicted as only being able to feed on the species they inhabit, namely humans (Fig. 6). When the human protagonist refers to Migi as a demon because of the dietary habit, Migi seizes the chance to challenge human-centric morality, equating feeding on humans to the food chain of birds and felines, viewing it as a nature for survival.

**Fig.6 - In *Parasyte - The Maxim*, the parasyte takes a human’s brain and preys on another human.**

In response to Migi’s viewpoint, Shinichi, taking a deontologist's stance, asserts that humans should not be viewed as mere prey because human being is special, full of emotions and cognitions. A traditional deontologist usually believes killing beings capable of rational thought (Humans) is morally wrong compared to those lacking such capacity (Kant 2005), because non-human animals lack the capacity to comprehend suffering and anticipate the future. Therefore, a feline hunting a canary and a parasite preying on humans are fundamentally different in moral terms. But, if the natural selection governs the feeding behaviour of parasites, it represents a survival of the fittest scenario, an unintentional process. This leads to the biological question to be answered: When parasytes, as willful and rational life forms, feed on humans driven by their biological mechanisms, does this behaviour still fall under the category of natural selection? Migi representing ‘impure others’, offers a simple response to both his host and the audience: “To look down on other species using human (moral) standards is pointless.” This is the debunking from a parasite that should have remained silent.

Fragility Within Impurity

"We are merely a life that cannot survive on its own, so don’t bully us" - Ryoko Tamiya, a parasyte character.

**Fig. 7 - The Californian condor. Wikipedia.**

**Fig. 8 - Colpocephalum californici. Image from The Canadian Entomologist (Price and Beer 1963).**

In the Parasyte universe, parasytes outmatch humans in survival, a fact highlighted by the ultimate antagonist Goto's immunity to firearms. Despite their advantages, their dependence on hosts reveals their vulnerability. The story escalates as humans recognize and attempt to eradicate the parasyte threat. Parasyte as a typical intrusive fantasy, is superficially set in the Primary World (Modern Japan), but in a place where elements from what Farah Mendlesohn calls a Secondary World (A world with Alien parasyte) have found a way to encroach (Mendlesohn 2008). Nevertheless, from ecological view, the Secondary World has already been come true in real world. As human bodies have fewer parasites, we instinctively perceive parasites on other species as harmful. For example, the breeding program for the endangered Californian condor includes the removal of lice (Rózsa and Vas 2015) (Fig. 7). Many parasites, due to their host-specificity, have evolved unique lineages and can only survive on such rare host species. The treatment for removing parasites would kill the last remaining host-specific Californian condor lice (Colpocephalum californici) (Fig. 8). When rare animals become conservation species, this can easily lead to the expulsion of another rare species simply because their lifestyle is parasitic. The condor and the lice, both endangered species, face entirely different fates.

Never Stop Listening to Impure Others

Parasyte prompts us to reflect on contemporary human and non-human interactions. It challenges the notion of 'impurity' often associated with certain species. Through its diverse storytelling across multiple media, Parasyte facilitates a nuanced dialogue between humans and parasites. The conversations between Migi and Shinichi serve as a metaphorical public sphere, highlighting overlooked ideas from 'impure' species. This narrative mirrors the need for a more inclusive approach to practice cross-species interaction.

For me, except for human nature, there’s more to be attentive to – those overlooked, and even detestable, parasitic organisms. The clash in the franchise between human communities and parasytes reflects our current predominant approach to cross-species interactions, characterized by expulsion. Bruno Latour's Parliament of Things (1993) advocates for the participation of a variety of nonhumans, where fruits, birds, and inanimate objects are included as actors to be invited and represented in parliament to claim their rights.

**Fig. 9 - Shinichi and Migi in the *Parasyte: The Maxim*.**

As a fantasy horror, Parasyte creates a sphere resembling the concept of ‘magic circle’ from game theory (Katie Salen Tekinbas 2003), which embodies the boundary between the imagined world and the actual surrounding real world. In the imagined world, everything happens for a reason, allowing individuals to invite silent others into a ’dialogue’ with humans. The interactions within this magic circle serve as a metaphor for the potential of dialogue to reveal more nuanced and diverse approaches to managing cross-species relationships (Fig. 9). Parasyte’s exploration of dialogue with the anthropomorphs of impure others, a process that goes beyond verbal communication to include exploring possibilities for coexistence – demonstrates that it can lead to more varied solutions than mere expulsion.

**Article published: May 10, 2024**

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Anna-Sophie Jürgens for her valuable discussions and contributions during the earlier stages of this manuscript. Additionally, I am grateful to Dr. Christopher Holliday, the Fantasy/Animation editor, for his insightful feedback. Their input has significantly enhanced the quality of this work.

References

Garay, József, and Lajos Rózsa. 2023. “Definitions of parasitism, considering its potentially opposing effects at different levels of hierarchical organization.” Parasitology 150, no. 9: 761-768.

Kant, Immanuel. 2005. Lectures on Ethics. Edited by P. Heath, & Schneewind J. B., Ed.

Salen Tekinbas, Katie, and Eric Zimmerman 2003. “Magic Circle.” In Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals., 2-3.

Latour, Bruno. 1993. "Parliament of Things." In We have never been modern 142-145. Harvard University Press.

Linser, Roni, Nina Ree Lindstad, and Tone Vold. 2008. "The Magic Circle - Game Design Principles and Online Role-play Simulations." EdMedia + Innovate Learning 2008, Vienna, Austria.

Mendlesohn, Farah. 2008. Rhetorics of fantasy. Middletown, Conn. :: Wesleyan University Press.

Patricia Kaishian, Maarten Lubbers, Ibtissem Ben Fekih, et al. . 2024. "Definitions of parasites and pathogens through time. ." Authorea.

Price, Roger D., and James R. Beer. 1963. “Species of Colpocephalum (Mallophaga: Menoponidae) Parasitic upon the Falconiformes.” The Canadian Entomologist 95, no. 7: 731-763.

Rózsa, Lajos, and Zoltán Vas. 2015. “Co-extinct and critically co-endangered species of parasitic lice, and conservation-induced extinction: should lice be reintroduced to their hosts?” Oryx 49, no. 1: 107-110.

Weeks, Paul. 2000. “Red-billed oxpeckers: vampires or tickbirds?” Behavioral Ecology 11, no. 2: 154-160.

Biography

Shao-Jie, a neuroscience Ph.D. candidate from Taiwan, has a wide range of interests — as he delves into the intricate workings of the brain by day and brings his vibrant characters to life as a manga artist and playwright by night. Currently, he's about to team with Dr. Anna-Sophie Jürgens at the Australian National University's Centre for the Public Awareness of Science (CPAS) to explore the captivating world of parasites in popular culture. It will be his second doctoral degree and an exhilarating journey through the realms of both science and storytelling. If you have any wild ideas about Sci-Fi/Horror or Folk horror, feel free to reach out to him. You'll find a competent fellow enthusiast. ixepistemai09@gapp.nthu.edu.tw.