Disability Is (Not) A Barrier – For Fantasy Heroes, or Commercial Success

I started researching the figure of Zatoichi the Blind Swordsman for specific reasons, which resulted in the book-length study, The Paths of Zatoichi (2021). These reasons were: the history of this fictional blind swordsman had not been fully mapped before (at least not in English language studies); the character’s influence reaches far beyond his origins in Japan; and I just found him fascinating (both as a character, and from a film historian’s perspective, in terms of production context and the study of popular culture). This inevitably led to grappling with the stereotyping of Asian culture within Western media. But what I had not fully considered is the central hook of this character – his disability. Shintaro Katsu played Zatoichi in 26 films (1962-73, and in 1989), and in 100 TV episodes (1974-79) (Fig. 1). He had famously said he was able to do this due to having a blind servant in his family while he grew up. Katsu had also played a blind money-lender and murderer in The Blind Menace (1960), two years before he would introduce Japan and the world to the blind swordsman. In the short space permitted in this blog post, I explore the fantastical depiction of this famous swordsman’s blindness a bit further, which also coincides with 2022 marking the sixtieth anniversary of the Zatoichi franchise.

Fig. 1 - Ichi’s first climactic duel, in 1962.

Ichi’s status as a wandered and masseur, as well as a swordsman, require some explanation of the roles of blind people in medieval Japanese society (specifically the Tokugawa era, from 1600-1868). The money-lenders, or kengyo, were officially only musicians or masseurs that were highly regarded in Japanese society at the time. Through their fame and wealth, they also developed a reputation as money lenders. Zatoichi instead inhabited a different role in society. Ichi is his given name (simply meaning ‘one’), and zato is his rank in the caste society of the time. Such blind people could only find employment as masseurs or musicians, but wandering and gambling travellers like Ichi could never amass the wealth of a high-ranking kengyo. Ichi’s wanderings often led to the discovery of corrupt yakuza schemes, which he would often foil through violent actions, and gave him impetus to travel from town to town after so many deaths. Later depictions of the character, such as Ichi (2008), also referred to the goze troupes of the Tokugawa era – blind female musicians who travelled from town to town, and often swore vows of chastity (Hirose, 2003).

The Zatoichi titles are both escapist chanbara (sword-action) films, as well as examples of jidaigeki – which literally means ‘period drama’. To contrast this character’s depiction of blindness with the reality of the situation in Tokugawa-era Japan would have necessitated an entirely different study. Nonetheless, when it came to mapping homages to Zatoichi throughout my book, certain parallels started to emerge. These included stereotypes of Asian characters and cultures on-screen, as well as depictions of disabled characters with highly-skilled or supernatural abilities – not to mention how entrenched these stereotypes are in Hollywood productions.

Fig. 2 – Rutger Hauer as Nick Parker.

Inspirations from Asian popular culture have thankfully moved on significantly from one of Zatoichi’s first homages within Western media. Blind Fury (dir. Phillip Noyce, 1989) even credits the script it adapts from Zatoichi Challenged (1967), written by Ryozo Kasahara, in its opening moments. However, the protagonist Nick Parker (Rutger Hauer) is a Vietnam veteran who was blinded in a helicopter crash, and supposedly learnt sword skills from a local tribe (Fig. 2). This is very much an Orientalist perspective of a uniform East Asian continent from the 1980s. Such a problematic view is only further illustrated in later scenes. One of the villains demands that his henchman hire the services of Bruce Lee, but seems satisfied when Sho Kosugi turns up as a sword-wielding assassin to eventually fight Nick – who is able to simply touch his face during their fight, and realise that he is Japanese (!).

Fig. 3 – Matt Murdock and Stick.

By 2015 and 2016, homages to Asian popular culture had improved and become more respectful, if not perfect. The knowing nods of Daredevil (2015-18) to the blind swordsman character stretch to both the Zatoichi films and Blind Fury. As is the case with many Hollywood productions, the protagonists in Marvel’s Daredevil series can be interpreted as ‘white saviours’ and ‘appropriators’ of Asian martial arts and culture. Though Matt Murdock (Charlie Cox) is native to New York, USA, and works as a lawyer when not hunting criminals as a vigilante (despite his blindness), he is trained in several fighting techniques, with and without the use of weapons. He was trained through the tutoring of Stick (Scott Glenn) (Fig. 3). Daredevil’s mysterious mentor is introduced talking Japanese and killing members of the yakuza with a samurai sword in the first season, while also being as blind as Matt. In flashbacks, he is introduced to a younger Matt in green military fatigues, suggesting a former combat career similar to the protagonist of Blind Fury. Though the second season hints at Stick’s supernatural background, these aesthetic nods to earlier blind warriors cannot be ignored.

Fig. 4 - Donnie Yen and Shintaro Katsu.

Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (Gareth Edwards, 2016) is arguably much more open with its nods to East Asian popular culture. The debt that the Star Wars franchise has to East Asia has long been acknowledged by both its creators and fans – from George Lucas borrowing certain plot and character elements from The Hidden Fortress (1958), to being inspired by the samurai and their bushido (warrior) codes in the creation of lightsabers, and the notion of the Force. Donnie Yen plays the character of Chirrut Imwe in Rogue One, a Guardian of the Whills, who protects the kyber crystals used in lightsabers (Fig. 4). Yen confirmed in several interviews before and after the release of Rogue One that it was his idea to play the character as blind, due to his love of the Zatoichi films when he was younger. Heightened senses of hearing, and his abilities with a staff, are explained through his knowledge of the Force, though he is not a Jedi. However, Chirrut falls into another category of character, as does Daredevil – that of the supercrip.

Chirrut is portrayed by a sighted actor, and this is also true for all portrayals of Zatoichi. Josefine Walivaraa details how both Zatoichi and Chirrut are ‘supercrips’ (2018, 1047-49), with reference to a stereotype coined by Amit Kama, who are either portrayed as being praised for doing everyday tasks despite their disability, or are capable of extraordinary feats, such as climbing mountains or extreme sports. Walivaraa argues that Chirrut represents a different stereotype, a super-powered supercrip, whereby his disability does not hinder his extraordinary skills. He is far from helpless, though such portrayals can lead to negative stereotypes, in terms of blind people having heightened senses and wisdom beyond that of an able-bodied person. However, in comparison to other examples of supercrips, these characters do not seek to be cured or assisted with their disability. Another aspect that Walivaraa does not comment on is the character’s differing view of their abilities. Chirrut trusts in The Force to not just help him navigate the world, but also to defend and justify himself. Zatoichi may have similar abilities, but he constantly regrets his violent ways. Matt Murdock, as Daredevil, is similarly grappling with the moral consequences of his violent actions, as he refuses to kill his adversaries and tries to be a devout Catholic (much to Stick’s disappointment).

While seeing characters such as Chirrut as progressive and inclusive steps forward in the Star Wars franchise, Walivaara (2018, 1051-2) also sees them as adhering to long-established stereotypes. They are often depicted as having an air of wisdom and superiority to those around them. They may be intended as positive role models for disabled viewers, but we must remember that these characters have extra-ordinary abilities (if not outright supernatural or fantastical skills). There is also a loose parallel of such stereotypes with those rooted in East Asian Popular culture. For instance, the wise old blind-man supercrip stereotype is adapted to the backdrop of the USA in Blind Fury. The timing of this adaptation in 1989 was likely to have partly been inspired by other successful action films from the 1980s, such as the Enter The Ninja and American Ninja series (Donovan, 2008, 132-40). As can be guessed from the titles – these film’s unique selling points were their appropriations of Asian popular culture.

Since Rogue One and Daredevil, other Marvel productions (also financed by Disney), such as Shang-Chi and The Legend of The Ten Rings, and Eternals, seem to have made better progressive strides. Shang-Chi is Marvel’s first superhero origin story involving a predominantly East Asian cast, which also updates the comic-book character’s back-story by removing connections from the racist caricature of Fu Manchu (Daly, 2021). Eternals introduces a group of super-powered and immortal individuals that are extra-terrestrial, one of which is deaf, communicates via sign-language, and has super-speed (Makkari, played by deaf actress Lauren Ridloff). However, the third act of Shang-Chi takes place in the mystical realm of Ta Lo, characterized by creatures and landscapes from East Asian mythology and folklore – which essentially ‘others’ this Oriental mysticism and cultural heritage from the ‘every day’ world. Similarly in Eternals, Makkari is only seen to be capable of having super-powers as well as a disability due to her extra-terrestrial origins.

In some ways, Zatoichi, as played by Shintaro Katsu, was perhaps more progressive, despite the actor not being blind himself. He had to wander from town to town as a masseur, as this was one of the few means of employment that he could take up in 19th century Japan. Yet he also demonstrates that he can play the flute and the shamisen (a Japanese version of the lute), in addition to fishing and archery. He is seen comically failing at other tasks, such as drawing, riding horses, and carrying palanquins. Sword skills aside, Ichi could be argued to be a positive portrayal of what blind characters could do within Japan’s medieval past. However, Shintaro Katsu was a talented singer, musician and actor, both on the stage and the screen. Zatoichi was simply one of many characters where he got to thwart several foes in addition to showcasing his entertaining skills. For instance, he also starred in the long-running Akumyo (Tough Guy) and Hoodlum Soldier film series, which were often released in the same years as many of his Zatoichi productions. Zatoichi has typically been portrayed on Japanese screens by other multi-talented stars after the passing of Shintaro Katsu. This includes the entertainer, actor and director Takeshi Kitano (2003); model, pop star and actress Haruka Ayase (2008); and the former member of boy-band SMAP, Shingo Katori (2010). Not only do such multi-talented stars sell, but so do popular characters and stereotypes, like Zatoichi.

**Article published: May 13, 2022**

References

Erb, Cynthia. 1998/2009. Tracking King Kong: A Hollywood Icon in World Culture. Wayne State University Press. 

Daly, Rhian. 2021. Kevin Feige confirms Fu Manchu is not a part of ‘Shang-Chi And The Legend Of The Ten Rings’. NME.com. https://www.nme.com/news/film/kevin-feige-confirms-fu-manchu-not-part-shang-chi-and-the-legend-of-the-ten-rings-3025881  

Donovan, Barna William. 2008. The Asian Influence on Hollywood Action Films. North Carolina: McFarland.

Hirose, Kojiro. 2003. Reconsidering Japanese Religious History. The Journal of the International Institute (University of Michigan), 10(3), 17-18.

Tsutsui, William M., and Ito, Michiko (eds). 2006. In Godzilla’s Footsteps: Japanese Pop Culture Icons on the Global Stage. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Walivaara, Josefine. 2018. Blind Warriors, Supercrips, and Techno-Marvels: Challenging Depictions of Disability in Star Wars. Journal of Popular Culture, 51(4), 1036-1056.

Biography

Dr Jonathan Wroot is Senior Lecturer and Programme Leader for Film Studies at the University of Greenwich. He has previously published research on home media formats and Asian cinema distribution. He co-edited a collection entitled New Blood: Framing 21st Century Horror, for UWP, in 2021, in addition to his monograph on the Zatoichi film and TV franchise. Some of this research will be appearing in the forthcoming edited collection, Women in East Asian Cinema. He has contributed to the podcast series Beyond Japan and Second Features, as well as the 2022 Japan Touring Film Programme. 

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